Residue Dynamics of Thifluzamide, Tiadinil, and Dinotefuran in a Paddy Rice System Following Nursery Box Application

Introduction

As the “net zero” concept popularized by the Paris Agreement, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reinforced this framework in a 2018 report, emphasizing the necessity for global greenhouse gas emissions, such as nitrous oxide (N₂O), methane (CH₄), and carbon dioxide (CO₂), to achieve net-zero by 2050. Since paddy rice cultivation is one of the most significant sources of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions including CH₄ and N₂O [1-3], it constitutes a major contributor to global warming [4,5]. Based on statistics data by the Ministry of Data and Statistics (MDS) and the Korea Rural Economic Institute (KREI), rice (Oryza sativa) production in Korea reached 3.585 million tons in 2024, accounting for ~70% of total crop yield [6]; therefore, the Korean Government has been striving to minimize greenhouse gas emissions from paddy fields. Given research findings that organic rice farming management without the use of prohibited synthetic pesticides and fertilizers can reduce greenhouse gas flux and increase stable soil organic carbon [7,8], the conversion of conventional rice farms to organic farming systems may have significant potential for climatic change mitigation.

One major obstacle to the conversion from conventional to organic rice cultivation systems is the environmental persistence of pesticide residues applied prior to organic conversion, which can be subsequently absorbed through root systems of the crops cultivated following the conversion process [9-11]. To address this issue, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the Agronomes & Vétérinaires Sans Frontiers (AVSF) have established frameworks mandating a transitional period before organic certification to allow sufficient time for pesticide degradation in the environment: in Korea, this period is three years for perennial crops and two years for other crops. However, pesticides detection in agricultural products from certified organic farms continues to be reported [12,13], despite the provision of an appropriate transitional period required for conversion to organic farming systems. The persistence characteristics of pesticides vary significantly depending on their physicochemical properties and environmental matrix conditions [14-16]. Thus, comprehensive on-site studies are essential to generate scientific data reflecting actual environmental effects.

Based on the pesticide safety information system provided by the Rural Development Administration (RDA), the anilide-derived plant activator tiadinil and the thiazole carboxamide fungicide thifluzamide are effective against rice blast and sheath blight, respectively, and are commonly formulated in combination with the neonicotinoid insecticide dinotefuran, which provides control against rice water weevil (Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel), small brown planthopper (Laodelphax striatellus), and stink bug (Halyomorpha halys). The pesticide mixture is applied directly to the nursery box topsoil either before or after rice seeding, or alternatively applied to the nursery box topsoil on the day of rice transplanting while avoiding direct contact with seedlings. Due to the plant-systemic nature of the pesticide actives in this mixture [17-19], these compounds may be readily absorbed by rice plants exhibiting high root vigor during transplanting and subsequently persist until harvest. Furthermore, pesticide residues persisting in the nursery box topsoil may be transferred to paddy soil following transplanting or may contaminate paddy water during irrigation process.

According to the Pesticide properties database (PPDB) provided by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), thifluzamide exhibits a prolonged half-life in soil ranging from 992 to 1,298 days and demonstrates high persistence and stability in aquatic environments. In contrast, tiadinil, developed in Japan in 2003, has an undetermined half-life in soil and water due to insufficient crop and environmental persistence studies. Dinotefuran possesses high water solubility of approximately 40,000 mg L^-1, indicating its potential for substantial migration into paddy water during rice cultivation, while its high aquatic stability may facilitate off-target movement via waterways to non-target areas (IUPAC PPDB). Taken together, rice farms with a history of applying these environmentally persistent and mobile pesticides may experience residue detection issues even following a nursery box treatment.

In this study, a mixed formulation containing thifluzamide, tiadinil, and dinotefuran was applied to rice seedlings with a nursery box treatment, and the residual dynamics of the three pesticides in rice and environmental matrices were evaluated over time to provide scientific data for the safe and appropriate use of this mixed formulation in paddy rice cultivation.

Results

Quality assurance for pesticide residue analysis method

The matrix-matched calibration curves of all test pesticides demonstrated good linearity with coefficients of determination (R²) of >0.99. In chromatograms analyzed by a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometer (LC–MS/MS; TSQ AltisTM with Accela LC system, Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Waltham, MA, USA), no interfering peaks were observed that could affect pesticide analysis. The method limits of quantification (LOQs) for each test pesticide ranged from 0.0002 to 0.005 mg kg^-1 (or mg L^-1) (Table S1). The analytical recoveries of the three test pesticides for all samples averaged 72.5−114.2%, which satisfied the analytical method guideline of 70−120%, and the coefficients of variation were 2.2−10.6%, meeting the European Commission’s SANTE 11312/2021 v2 guideline of <20%. Therefore, the analytical method established in this study was deemed suitable for the analysis of thifluzamide, tiadinil, and dinotefuran in soil, paddy water, and rice samples.

Application of decay models to pesticide residue data

A double-exponential decay model successfully described residual dynamics of all test pesticides in paddy soil, water, and rice samples (Table 1). The modeling performance of the double-exponential model, demonstrating R² values of 0.80 to 1.00 and normalized root mean square errors (NRMSEs) of 0.6 to 84.1%, was more accurate than that obtained using a typical first-order decay model (R² = 0.11–0.82 and NRMSE = 50.6–237.2%; Table S2). For all samples, the portion of the initial fast dissipation phase (k₁ = 1.0 × 10^-1 to 4.1 d^-1) was small (P₁ = 0.01 to 14.16%), while the later slow dissipation phase (k₂ = 0.0 to 2.6 × 10^-6 d^-1) accounted for the majority with P₂ of >85.84%. Detailed modeling results for each pesticide are presented individually in the following sections.

Residual results of thifluzamide in rice cultivation systems

The mean residue concentration of thifluzamide in soil 1 h after transplanting was 0.092 mg kg^-1 and rapidly decreased to 0.029 mg kg^-1 (a 68.5% reduction) within 3 days (Fig. 1(a)). From the third day, the residual concentration reduced at relatively slow rate to 0.014 mg kg^-1 (an 84.7% reduction from the initial concentration). The soil half-life (DT₅₀) of thifluzamide during rice cultivation was determined to be 1.6 days, as estimated using the double-exponential decay model parameters (R² = 0.944). Due to the gradual release of thifluzamide from the soil following irrigation, the residue concentration in paddy water reached its maximum (0.013 mg L^-1) one week after transplanting, exceeding the concentration observed on the day of transplanting (Fig. 1(b)). The residual dynamics of thifluzamide in paddy water, obtained by setting the 7-day residue concentration as the initial concentration, were accurately modeled by the double-exponential model (R² = 0.99). The DT₅₀ of thifluzamide in paddy water was 7.3 days, which was longer than that observed in soil.

The residual concentration of thifluzamide in rice above ground biomass (AGB) samples collected sequentially from 7 days after application was initially 10.4 mg kg^-1 and decreased 28-fold to 0.370 mg kg^-1 after 22 days, reaching 0.014 mg kg^-1 at harvest (Fig. 1(c)). The DT₅₀ of thifluzamide estimated from these dissipation trends was 3.6 days. The thifluzamide concentration in rice grain samples was <0.005 mg kg^-1.

Residual results of tiadinil in rice cultivation systems

The mean concentration of tiadinil residues in soil was 0.100 mg kg^-1 at 1 h after transplanting and declined rapidly to below the LOQ (0.005 mg kg^-1) within 7 days, after which it remained undetectable until harvest (Fig. 2(a)). The soil DT₅₀ of tiadinil estimated using double-exponential decay model parameters (R² = 0.840) was 0.7 days. The concentration of tiadinil residues released from the soil into paddy water was 0.007 mg L^-1 at transplanting and decreased below the LOQ (0.0002 mg L^-1) after 22 days, indicating a DT₅₀ of 4.0 days (Fig. 2(b)). The residual concentration of tiadinil in rice AGB samples were initially 14.1 mg kg^-1 at 7 days after application and decreased to below the LOQ (0.005 mg kg^-1) after 15 days, corresponding to the DT₅₀ of 2.5 days (Fig. 2(c)). The tiadinil concentration in rice grain samples at harvest was <0.005 mg kg^-1.

Residual results of dinotefuran in rice cultivation systems

The mean dinotefuran concentration in soil was 0.006 mg kg^-1 at 1 h after transplanting and declined rapidly to below the LOQ (0.005 mg kg^-1) within 7 days (Fig. 3(a)). The DT₅₀ of dinotefuran in soil was estimated to be 10.1 days based on a double-exponential decay model (R² = 0.795). The initial concentration of dinotefuran in paddy water after transplanting was 0.242 mg L^-1 and decreased to below the LOQ (0.005 mg L^-1) after 22 days (Fig. 3(b)). The DT₅₀ of dinotefuran in paddy water was 0.2 days. The initial concentration of dinotefuran in rice AGB samples collected 7 days after application was 2.6 mg kg^-1, representing the lowest level among the three tested pesticides (Fig. 3(c)). The dinotefuran concentration in rice AGB samples fell below the LOQ (0.005 mg kg^-1) from 52 days after application, with the DT₅₀ of 2.8 days.

Discussion

Pesticide dissipation characteristics in rice cultivation environments

To date, no comparative studies are available that enables direct discussion of the tiadinil residue characteristics observed in the present study. However, given that tiadinil residues in both paddy soil and water dissipated rapidly to levels below the respective LOQs, its persistence in paddy field environments is unlikely to pose a significant concern.

The IUPAC has reported that thifluzamide and dinotefuran exhibit substantially long half-lives in non-paddy soils (DT₅₀ = 992 to 1,298 days and 50 to 100 days, respectively) and are highly stable to hydrolysis. In contrast to these previous reports, the present study showed that the pesticide residues dissipated rapidly in both paddy soil and water during rice cultivation. Under certain conditions where the pesticide undergoes photodegradation in aquatic environments, thifluzamide and dinotefuran can be dramatically dissipated with the DT₅₀ of 3.7 days and 0.2 days (approximately 5 hours; IUPAC PPDB), respectively. Since rice paddies are flooded during summer season when solar radiation is most intense, the paddy field environment in the current study might be sufficient to facilitate the aquatic photodegradation processes. Furthermore, the activity of indigenous microorganisms in paddy field environments may have contributed to the accelerated degradation of the pesticides [20,21]. Therefore, the relatively short DT₅₀ of thifluzamide in paddy soil and water observed in this study represents a plausible outcome.

Previous research conducted in China demonstrated that the DT₅₀ of thifluzamide (1.8 to 3.7 days; [18]) and dinotefuran (1.6 to 4.2 days; [22]) in paddy soils were consistent with the current findings. Furthermore, Wei et al. [23] reported that the soil DT₅₀ of dinotefuran applied in paddy rice fields across three regions of China (Guangxi, Hunan, and Anhui) could not be determined, as all pesticide residues dissipated immediately after application. Similar to observations in paddy soils, thifluzamide (DT₅₀ = 0.3 to 0.6 days; [18]) and dinotefuran (DT₅₀ = 0.9 to 20.5 days; [22,23]) have also been reported to dissipated rapidly in paddy water through aquatic photolysis.

Pesticide dissipation characteristics in rice AGBs

The dissipation of pesticide residues in rice AGB samples following nursery box application may be attributed to their metabolism within the plant and dilution caused by biomass increase during plant growth [18,24]. In the Republic of Korea, thifluzamide, tiadinil, and dinotefuran are not regulated as a major pesticide with potential risks to animal feed, including rice straws; therefore, no residue limits have been established for these compounds in feed. Instead, the Korean Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (MAFRA) applies the Positive List System (PLS), which sets the permissible residue level for pesticides not approved for use in feed at <0.01 mg kg^-1. The concentration of thifluzamide residues in rice AGB samples observed in this study (0.014 mg kg^-1) exceeded this regulatory threshold. Furthermore, this concentration could be further elevated due to moisture loss during the biomass-drying process, suggesting that rice straw applied with thifluzamide may not be suitable for use as animal feed. In contrast to thifluzamide, the residual levels of tiadinil and dinotefuran observed in rice AGB samples at harvest were below the PLS-regulatory threshold. Although the residual concentrations of tiadinil and dinotefuran in rice straw may increase following the drying process, the likelihood of exceeding the PLS-regulatory threshold is low because their analysis concentrations observed in this study were below the LOQ (<0.005 mg kg^-1).

Pesticide dissipation characteristics in rice grain

Maximum residue limits (MRLs) in rice have been established at 0.3 mg kg^-1 for thifluzamide and 1.0 mg kg^-1 for tiadinil and dinotefuran by the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety. As all residue concentrations of the three test pesticides in rice grain samples were below both the LOQs (<0.005 mg kg^-1) and the MRLs, rice grains produced following their applications are not expected to pose safety concerns for human consumption.

Conclusions

The current study modeled the time-dependent persistence of three pesticides (thifluzamide, tiadinil, and dinotefuran) in rice cultivation systems following nursery box application of a mixed granule formulation. All three pesticides in the flooded paddy environment dissipated rapidly due to simultaneous and combined action of multiple factors, including microbial decomposition, photodegradation, plant uptake, drainage, runoff, volatilization, and adsorption. By harvest, two of the pesticides (tiadinil and dinotefuran) had decreased to below the LOQs in all samples of paddy soil, water, and rice. However, thifluzamide was continuously detected at concentrations above the LOQs in all environmental matrices until harvest and exceeded the PLS regulatory threshold (0.01 mg kg^-1) in rice AGB samples, which are commonly used as animal feed. The results of this study provide useful information that may serve as reference for future studies on pesticide residue management during the transition from conventional to organic rice farming. Further studies should be conducted with repeated trials over multiple years and across diverse paddy rice cultivation conditions with varying soil properties, including pH, organic matter, and texture. Additionally, metabolites potentially generated from the degradation of parent pesticides should be monitored during the transitional period if they are expected to pose risks to human health and the environment.

Materials and Methods

Field trials

Field trials were conducted in a conventional rice field located in Danam-ri, Eumo-myeon, Gimcheon-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do (36.181952°N, 128.152893°E) (Fig. S1). Prior to the test, soil samples were collected from multiple sites within the field and analyzed to confirm the absence of target pesticide residues. The rice cultivar used was ‘Youngho Jinmi’, a japonica rice (Oryza sativa subsp. japonica) variety, and the seedlings were grown in nursery boxes (54 × 28 × 5 cm; L × W × H) for approximately 3−4 weeks before transplanting. Considering the germination rate, 250−300 g of rice seeds were evenly sown per nursery boxes. The test pesticide was Samgugtong-il, a 9(2.5+5.0+1.5)% mixed formulation containing thifluzamide, tiadinil, and dinotefuran, manufactured by Kyungnong (Icheon-si, Korea). Sixty grams of the test pesticide was uniformly applied to the nursery boxes on May 21, 2021, the day of transplanting, in accordance with the safe use guidelines as presented in Table 2. The physicochemical properties of the test pesticides are shown in Table 3.

Nursery boxes containing rice seedlings were gently shaken to remove excess moisture prior to pesticide application, and any pesticide adhering to the seedlings during application was thoroughly dislodged to ensure deposition onto the topsoil. The pesticide-treated seedlings were transplanted into the paddy field at a depth of 2–3 cm with 30 cm row spacing and 15 cm hill spacing (3–5 rice seedlings per hill), and the paddy field was irrigated and maintained at a water height of 3 cm or more after 5 days. The test plot area was 835.8 m² (= 0.08358 ha), and 24 nursery boxes treated with the pesticide were used for the entire experiment. Untreated control plots were prepared at least 10 m away from the test plots. Mid-season drainage was performed for approximately 10 days starting 40 days before heading (mid-August), and terminal drainage was implemented 40 days after heading (early October) and maintained until harvest.

Sampling

Paddy soil samples were collected at 0 (1 hour), 1, 3, 7, 15, 22, 59, 90, and 148 days after application. The soil samples were collected from the topsoil at a depth of 10 cm from at least 10 randomly selected locations within the test plots and combined into a single composite sample for each sampling period. Gravitational water was drained from the soil samples, which were then transported to the laboratory under refrigerated conditions. The transported soil samples were homogenized using a shaker (Jeio Tech SK-600, Lab Companion, Daejeon, Korea) at 200 rpm for 60 min, then aliquoted into 30 g portions and stored at −20℃. Some of the soil samples were dried and used for moisture content determination, and the measured moisture content was used to correct the soil sample mass for pesticide residue concentration calculations. Meanwhile, paddy water samples were collected at 0 (1 hour), 1, 3, 7, 15, 22, 72 (different from soil sampling time due to mid-season drainage event), and 90 days after application. At least 2 L of water samples were collected on each sampling date, and the 400-mL aliquot was transferred to separatory funnels upon arrival at the laboratory. Subsequently, the water samples were subjected to liquid-liquid extraction twice with 100 mL dichloromethane. The dichloromethane layer was dehydrated with anhydrous sodium sulfate, pooled, concentrated in a 40℃ water bath, reconstituted in 4 mL acetonitrile, and stored at −20℃.

AGBs of rice (>5 kg) including only stems and leaves were collected at 7, 15, 22, 30, 59, 90, and 148 days after application from 10 randomly selected locations within the test field and combined into a single composite sample for each sampling period. The rice AGB samples were transported to the laboratory, gently wiped with paper towels to remove surface moisture, cut into small pieces, frozen, and ground with dry ice. Rice grain samples (>50 kg) were collected once on the harvest date from 10 randomly selected locations, homogenized, and milled into brown rice. The brown rice samples were ground to powder using a grinder and stored at −20℃ with the rice AGB samples until analysis.

Sample pretreatment

Thirty grams of soil sample was extracted with 40 mL acetonitrile and 2 g sodium chloride by shaking at 200 rpm for 60 min, followed by centrifugation at 3,500 rpm for 5 min. A certain volume of the supernatant was diluted with acetonitrile to 60 mL, and a 1-mL aliquot was subjected to cleanup using 50 mg primary secondary amine (PSA; Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) and 50 mg C₁₈ sorbent (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA), then centrifuged at 10,000 rpm. The supernatant was filtered through a 0.20-μm PTFE syringe filter and transferred to a 2-mL vial.

From the 4-mLpaddy water sample previously extracted, a 3-mL aliquot (equivalent to 300 mL of the original sample) was diluted with acetonitrile to a final volume of 30 mL for simultaneous analysis of thifluzamide and tiadinil. The remaining 1-mL sample was divided in half, and one portion (0.5 mL) was diluted with acetonitrile to a final volume of 30 mL for dinotefuran analysis. A 1-mL aliquot of each diluted sample was then purified and filtered following the procedure described for soil samples, and the pretreated samples were transferred to 2-mL vials.

Ten grams of rice AGB (fresh weight) or grain samples were moistened with 10−15 mL water for 1 h and then extracted with 20 mL acetonitrile by shaking at 200 rpm for 30 min. Subsequently, the samples were subjected to additional extraction for 30 min using a QuEChERS extraction kit (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) containing 6 g magnesium sulfate (MgSO₄) and 1.5 g sodium acetate (NaOAc), followed by centrifugation at 3,500 rpm for 5 min. One milliliter of the supernatant was purified and filtered using the same procedure as described for soil samples, and the pretreated samples were transferred to 2-mL vials.

Condition of analytical instrument

For quantitative analysis of the test pesticides, a specified volume of the pretreated samples was injected into the LC–MS/MS: 10 μL for soil and rice AGB/grain samples, and 2−5 μL for paddy water samples. The peak areas at the retention time of each pesticide on the analyzed chromatograms were used to construct calibration curves and quantify recovery and unknown samples. The column used for LC–MS/MS was a Kinetex 2.6 μm C₁₈ 100 Å (50 × 2.1 mm; Phenomenex, Torrance, CA, USA), and the mobile phase consisted of 80% acetonitrile containing 0.1% formic acid, delivered under isocratic conditions at a flow rate of 0.2 mL min^-1. The ionization method employed in the MS part was electrospray ionization (ESI) operated in positive (dinotefuran) or negative (thifluzamide and tiadinil) mode. The selective reaction monitoring (SRM) parameters for each pesticide analyzed are summarized in Table 4.

Quality assurance of analytical methods

The quality of the pesticide residue analysis method established in this study was validated by evaluating linearity, accuracy, precision, LOQs, and selectivity. The linearity assessment procedure was as follows: Blank samples containing no pesticides were pretreated according to the analytical procedure described above, and the pretreated blank matrix was used as a solvent to prepare matrix-matched standard series for each test pesticide within the range of 0.001 to 0.200 mg L^-1, with concentration intervals selected such that the ratio between the highest and lowest concentration in each calibration curve did not exceed 100. Specified volumes (2−10 μL) of the prepared calibration standard series were injected into the LC–MS/MS, and the resulting peak areas were used to construct matrix-matched calibration curves and evaluate R² values. The selectivity (or specificity) was assessed by verify the presence of interfering peaks in the analytical chromatograms, and the LOQ was determined using the minimum instrumentally detectable amount of each test pesticide in the matrix-matched standard solution [25−27]. The accuracy and precision of the method were evaluated through recovery tests. Blank samples were fortified with each test pesticide at two concentrations: the LOQ level and ten times the LOQ level. The fortified samples were then analyzed with five replicates based on the analytical methods described above. The spiked concentrations were 0.005 and 0.050 mg kg^-1 for soil and rice samples, and 0.0002 and 0.0020 mg L^-1 for paddy water samples (0.005 and 0.050 mg L^-1 for dinotefuran due to low instrumental sensitivity).

Data analysis

Data processing and statistical analysis were performed using Microsoft 365 Excel, and residual trends of each test pesticide were characterized by applying a first-order decay model (Eq. 1) and a double-exponential decay model (Eq. 2) [10,11]. All residual values that were not detected (i.e., analyzed as zero) were substituted with half of the corresponding LOQ, and the model accuracy was evaluated by comparing R² and NRMSE (Eq. 3) values between the modeled and measured results.

Where C_(t) is the pesticide residue concentration over time (mg kg^-1 or mg L^-1), and C0 is the initial pesticide residue concentration (mg kg^-1 or mg L^-1). P₁ and P₂ represent the proportions of the fast degradation phase (phase I) and slow degradation phase (phase II) of the pesticide, respectively. While k_f is the first-order decay constant (d^-1), k₁ and k₂ are the first-order decay constants in decay phases I and II, respectively.

Data Availability: All data are available in the main text or in the Supplementary Information.

Author Contributions: H.-I. J., M.-J. K., C.-H. L., and J.-I. H. visualized the results, wrote the first manuscript, and revised the manuscript. T.-H. K. and B.-K. S. conceived, conceptualized, designed, and supervised the study. J.-W. P. and B.-J. B. led the experimental investigation and conducted the formal analysis of the data.

Notes: The authors declare no conflict of interest

Additional Information:

Supplementary information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.5338/KJEA.2026.45.17

Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to Jeong-In Hwang.

Peer review information Agricultural and Environmental Sciences thanks the anonymous reviewers for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Reprints and permissions information is available at http://www.korseaj.org

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This work was supported by research funds of National Research Foundation of Korea (RS-2025-00513348).

Tables & Figures

Table 1. Double-exponential model parameters and half-lives (DT₅₀) of thifluzamide, tiadinil, and dinotefuran in paddy soil, water, and rice aboveground biomass (AGB) samples following nursery box treatment

^a) P₁ and P₂, Proportions of fast and slow dissipation phases, respectively, in the DE model. ^b) k₁ and k₂, Dissipation rate constants for fast and slow dissipation phases, respectively, in the DE model. ^c) R², Coefficients of determination for regression analysis. ^d) NRMSE, Normalized root square mean error. ^e) DT₅₀, Half-lives of pesticides in tested samples.

Fig. 1. Measured (circle symbol) and modelled (solid line) results of thifluzamide residues in paddy soil (a), water (b) and rice aboveground biomass (AGB); (c) samples following nursery box application. Error bars represent the standard deviations of triplicate measurements (n=3).

Fig. 2. Measured (circle symbol) and modelled (solid line) results of tiadinil residues in paddy soil (a), water (b) and rice aboveground biomass (AGB); (c) samples following nursery box application. Error bars represent the standard deviations of triplicate measurements (n=3).

Fig. 3. Measured (circle symbol) and modelled (solid line) results of dinotefuran residues in paddy soil (a), water (b) and rice aboveground biomass (AGB); (c) samples following nursery box application. Error bars represent the standard deviations of triplicate measurements (n=3).

Table 2. Application methods of thifluzamide, tiadinil, and dinotefuran to rice

Table 3. Chemical structures and physicochemical properties of tested pesticides

Table 4. Selective reaction monitoring conditions of tested pesticides for LC–MS/MS analysis

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